PCS-C05 · Module 1 — Core Concepts · Lesson 1.1 · Study time: 70 minutes · Language: English

Learning objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

  • Define the core concepts that organise identity, religion and conflict and distinguish them from their everyday near-synonyms.
  • Explain why the way a concept is defined determines what counts as evidence for or against it.
  • Identify the main points of disagreement between competing accounts of identity, religion and conflict.
  • Apply the vocabulary of peace, conflict and security studies accurately in written analysis.

Key terms

Direct, structural and cultural violence
A foundational idea in peace, conflict and security studies. Treat it as a working definition to be tested against cases rather than as a settled fact.
Negative and positive peace
Frequently confused with the term above in everyday usage. The distinction between them does real analytical work and is examined in this lesson.
Securitisation
A concept that becomes visible mainly when it fails, which is why so much of the literature is built on failure cases.
Human security
A contested term. Different schools attach different criteria to it, and a great deal of apparent disagreement in this field is disagreement about this word.
Operational definition
The version of a concept that specifies what you would actually observe or measure. Without one, a claim about identity, religion and conflict cannot be tested.

Lesson

Why definitions are not preliminaries

This lesson. Core Concepts belongs to Module 1 — Core Concepts of PCS-C05 Identity, Religion and Conflict, taught in the School of Peace, Conflict and Security Studies. Work through the written lesson first, then the slide deck below, then the activity. Every element on this page is live HTML text: it can be enlarged, printed, searched, read aloud by assistive technology and machine-translated without loss.

It is tempting to treat the definitional section of a course as throat-clearing before the real material begins. In peace, conflict and security studies that instinct is wrong, and expensively so. How you define identity, religion and conflict determines what you will count as an instance of it, which determines what evidence you will gather, which determines what conclusion you can reach. A study that defines the phenomenon broadly will find it everywhere and conclude that it is a general condition; a study that defines it narrowly will find it rarely and conclude that it is exceptional. Both may be internally valid and they will contradict each other in public.

This is why the literature in this area contains long-running arguments that never resolve. Participants are not disagreeing about the world; they are disagreeing about the boundary of a category and reporting the results as if they were about the world. Your first analytical obligation, whenever you read a claim about identity, religion and conflict, is to find the operational definition being used. If it is not stated, that absence is itself a finding, and a serious one.

The core vocabulary

Four concepts do most of the work in this field: direct, structural and cultural violence, negative and positive peace, securitisation and human security. Each has an everyday sense that is close enough to the technical sense to cause trouble. The everyday sense of direct, structural and cultural violence is loose and evaluative; the technical sense is specific and, in principle, checkable. Using the everyday sense while borrowing the authority of the technical one is the most common weakness in student writing at this level, and it is easy for a marker to detect.

The remaining vocabulary of the field — conflict cycle, spoilers, transitional justice and reconciliation — is layered on top of that base. Notice that these terms are not independent. They form a structure in which changing your account of one forces changes elsewhere. If you adopt a demanding definition of direct, structural and cultural violence, you will find that your account of spoilers has to become more permissive to keep the picture coherent. Watching for that kind of forced trade-off is a reliable way to understand a theoretical position quickly.

Where the disagreements actually are

Strip away the terminology and most disputes in identity, religion and conflict reduce to three questions. First, is the phenomenon best understood as a property of individuals, of organisations or of systems? Second, is it something that can be measured directly, or only through proxies whose relationship to the underlying quantity is itself a theory? Third, is the appropriate response corrective, structural or political? Positions in this field can be located fairly accurately by their answers to those three questions, and doing so is more useful than sorting authors into named schools.

The mistake to avoid is assuming that one answer must be correct across all cases. In peace, conflict and security studies the level at which a phenomenon is best analysed often varies with the question being asked. A hospital, a ministry and a household can all be the right unit of analysis for a study of the same problem, and the researcher’s obligation is to justify the choice, not to pretend it was inevitable.

Using the concepts well

A concept earns its place in your writing if removing it would change your conclusion. Apply that test ruthlessly. Sentences that name three theorists and reach the conclusion you would have reached anyway are decoration, and experienced markers read them as padding. Sentences that use securitisation to explain why the obvious interpretation of the evidence is wrong are analysis, and they carry marks.

Precision also means being willing to say what a concept excludes. If your definition of identity, religion and conflict would classify almost any observed situation as an instance, it is not doing analytical work. Test your definitions by looking for a plausible near-case that falls outside them. If you cannot construct one, the definition is too broad, and you should tighten it before you go any further.

Worked example: pulling a definition apart

Suppose a report states that identity, religion and conflict has ‘improved significantly’ over five years. Before accepting or rejecting that, ask four questions in order. What operational definition is in use? What data source generates the numbers, and did that source change during the period? What is the comparison — improvement against the previous year, against a target, or against a comparable population? And what would deterioration have looked like in this measurement system, given that many indicators are constructed so that they can only rise?

Working through those questions usually produces one of three verdicts. The claim survives, in which case you now understand it far better than the person who accepted it uncritically. The claim survives in weakened form, which is the most common outcome and is a perfectly respectable finding. Or the claim turns out to be an artefact of a definitional or measurement change, which is the finding that most often gets a piece of student work noticed. None of this requires new data collection; it requires reading the methods section, which most readers skip.

Slide deck

A ten-slide presentation of this lesson, built in HTML so that it prints, translates, enlarges and reads aloud on any device.

Slide 1 of 10

Core concepts of Identity, Religion and Conflict

Definitions are not preliminaries. They decide what counts as evidence.

Module 1 of PCS-C05.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 2 of 10

The definitional problem

  • A broad definition finds the phenomenon everywhere
  • A narrow definition finds it almost nowhere
  • Both can be internally valid
  • Disagreements about the world are often disagreements about a boundary

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 3 of 10

Four core terms

  • direct, structural and cultural violence
  • negative and positive peace
  • securitisation
  • human security

Each has an everyday sense close enough to the technical sense to cause trouble.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 4 of 10

Four further terms

  • conflict cycle
  • spoilers
  • transitional justice
  • reconciliation

These are not independent: changing one forces changes elsewhere.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 5 of 10

Operational definition

The version of a concept that states what you would actually observe or measure.

If it is not stated in a source, that absence is a finding.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 6 of 10

Where the disputes are

  • Individual, organisational or systemic?
  • Measured directly, or only by proxy?
  • Corrective, structural or political response?

Locate a position by its answers to these three questions.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 7 of 10

Unit of analysis

The right level of analysis varies with the question, not with the theorist’s loyalty.

Justify the choice; do not present it as inevitable.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 8 of 10

Test for a useful concept

  • Would removing it change your conclusion?
  • Can you name a plausible case it excludes?
  • Can you say what evidence would count against it?

If the answer is no three times, the concept is decoration.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 9 of 10

Common errors

  • Using the everyday sense with the authority of the technical sense
  • Definitions so broad that nothing is excluded
  • Naming theorists instead of using them
  • Treating a measurement change as a real change

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

Slide 10 of 10

What to carry forward

You now have the vocabulary. Module 2 supplies the frameworks that put it to work.

Bring your own definitions to the activity below.

PCS-C05 · Lesson 1.1KBA13 Academy

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Activity

Build a definitional audit of Identity, Religion and Conflict

Find two published sources that make a substantive claim about identity, religion and conflict and reach different conclusions. Extract the operational definition each one uses, in the authors’ own terms, and set them side by side. Then write 400 words explaining how much of the disagreement between the two is definitional and how much is genuinely empirical. Reference both sources properly.

Expected output. A 400-word audit with a two-column definitional comparison and full references for both sources.

Suggested time. 90 minutes

Check your understanding

Q1. Why can two rigorous studies of identity, religion and conflict reach opposite conclusions without either being dishonest?

Because they may be using different operational definitions, so they are not counting the same things. The disagreement is about the boundary of a category and only appears to be about the world. This is why the first move in reading any empirical claim here is to locate the definition in use.

Q2. What does it mean to say the core concepts of this field are not independent?

It means the concepts form a structure. Adopting a demanding version of one concept forces compensating adjustments elsewhere if the overall account is to stay coherent. Spotting those forced trade-offs is a fast way to understand an unfamiliar theoretical position.

Q3. Give the three-part test for whether a concept is doing analytical work in your writing.

Would removing it change your conclusion; can you name a plausible case that falls outside it; and can you state what evidence would count against it? A concept that fails all three is decoration and should be cut.

References and further reading

  • Galtung, J. (1969) ‘Violence, peace, and peace research’, Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), pp. 167–191.
  • Lederach, J. P. (1997) Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington, DC: USIP Press.
  • Buzan, B., Wæver, O. and de Wilde, J. (1998) Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
  • Kaldor, M. (2012) New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. 3rd edn. Cambridge: Polity.
  • Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A. (2004) ‘Greed and grievance in civil war’, Oxford Economic Papers, 56(4), pp. 563–595.
  • Sartori, G. (1970) ‘Concept misformation in comparative politics’, American Political Science Review, 64(4), pp. 1033–1053.
  • Gerring, J. (1999) ‘What makes a concept good?’, Polity, 31(3), pp. 357–393.

Use of AI. You may use generative AI to summarise, translate or critique the material in this lesson, provided you verify every factual claim and citation against the sources listed above. Assessed work must carry a use-of-AI statement.

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